Assessment Task Facial expression Essay

Electronic communication plays vast roles in the way individuals communicate in today’s society, this has created a significant change to the quality of interpersonal communication. Using instant text messaging as a channel of communication detracts from the quality of interpersonal communication as it eliminates important components conveyed through face-to-face communication. Eye contact, body movements and facial expressions are all important elements that contribute to interpersonal communication. Eye contact can provide important information through non-verbal communication it can convey and enhance messages that may not be interpreted verbally. Body movement enhances information that is being expressed or received and sends strong messages through verbal and non-verbal communication. Facial expressions can communicate non-verbal signals with only minor movements of the face. When exchanging information these non-verbal signals can help display emotion and response. These important components of interpersonal communication play fundamental roles in communicating information and cannot be expressed through electronic pathways such as instant text messaging. Eye contact and eye behavior is an important element in interpersonal communication. Understanding information can at times be a difficult process, some would say without eye contact it makes it hard to verify whether the information they are conveying is being comprehended (Davidhizar 1992). Eye contact plays a fundamental role through non-verbal communication as it can be substituted for verbal communication. Using a direct gaze or certain eye behavior can be interpreted as many things such as signaling or acknowledging an individual (Davidhizar 1992; Eunson 2012). Additionally eye contact in verbal communication can enhance the information being expressed engaging the listener and helping them comprehend the information promptly (Davidhizar 1992). Absence of eye contact in interpersonal communication can result in misinterpreted information. It is likely that the sender of the message will interpret that the listener is disinterested and has minimal concern as to what is being communicated (Davidhizar 1992). Interpersonal communication is a process in which senders and receivers exchange messages between each other either verbally or non-verbally. This can be enhanced by visual elements to share information and feelings (Gardner and Kleiner 2009). Therefore using interpersonal communication through an electronic communication channel such as instant text messaging is not a sufficient way in making sure information is received adequately as eye contact is a vital element that is absent in the communication channel. Body movement is a powerful tool and strong indicator as to how we communicate with others. Eunson (2012, p. 267) states ‘ orientation, or the attitude, inclination or body angle we adopt in relation to others, can send powerful nonverbal messages’. There are various types of movements that can be indicated through the body as communication. Affect displays is a main type of movement of the body. These are movements of the face, hands and general body (Devito 2012). Face movements can include certain facial expressions such as frowning or smiling, hand movements that help illustrate verbal messages for example, referring to something to the left or right and the general body can illustrate body tension or relaxation (DeVito 2002). Affect displays help communicate emotional meaning at times during communication. They can be done intentionally to help display the message such as smiling to express enjoyment or approval (DeVito 2002). Alternatively Affect displays may be done unintentionally when messages are being communicated the sender or receiver may smile or frown unconsciously (DeVito 2002). When exchanging information and messages through instant text messaging the movements of affect displays cannot be communicated and visible to the sender or receiver. Consequently making instant text messaging an un-reliable way of exchanging information effectively. Facial expressions through non-verbal communication are a sufficient way in listening, expressing emotion and giving feedback. Non-verbal communication is a vital element of interpersonal communication as it helps express emotion and personality through the process of exchanging information (Eunson 2012). Non-verbal signals such as facial expressions can be defined as non-verbal behavior. Ellgring (1989, p.5) describes it as ‘ A code matches signs of one set to signs of another set’. When a person uses facial expressions it can convey many emotions, this can be done with only minor movements of the face. Some emotions that can be expressed are happiness, surprise, fear and anger (DeVito 2002). Facial expressions are relied upon to comprehend messages sufficiently and to understand one another especially in non-verbal communication (Goldmann and Mallory 1992). Ekman (cited in Calero 2005, p. 64) states â€Å"when a facial expression is used as a signal – such as winking an eye as a gesture of approval, or sticking out the tongue to signify playful distaste – they are very easy to comprehend†. Instant text messaging has become a more widespread and convenient mode of communication in every day life (Huang et al 2007). However when messages are being communicated through an electronic channel such as instant text messaging comprehension of information can at times be misinterpreted or difficult to understand (Galushkin 2003). When communicating face-to-face receiving verbal and non-verbal signals aids the sender or receiver to interpret information sufficiently (Huang et al. 2007). Accordingly facial expressions play a vital role in sending and receiving verbal and non-verbal signals (Huang et el. 2007). This making face-to face communication a more efficient and effective way of exchanging information and messages, than electronic communication. Eye contact, body movement and facial expressions are fundamental features in the exchange of information in interpersonal communication. Using eye contact effectively in communication guarantees information is being interpreted sufficiently and the sender or receiver is engaged in what is being expressed. The use of body movement in communication aids in the interpretation of information and sends powerful messages that can communicate emotional meaning. Facial expressions such as frowning or smiling help communicate emotion and personality through the exchange of information. They are sufficient in making sure messages are clearly understood especially in non-verbal communication. Therefore the elements of eye contact, body movement and facial expressions are all significant mechanisms to ensure adequate communication. Electronic communication is unable to utilize these elements of information transfer, and can therefore be considered an inferior method of communication when compared to face-to-face communication. References Calero, H 2005, The Power of Nonverbal Communication How you act is more important than what you say, silver lake publishing, Aberdeen, WA. Davidhizar, R 1992, Interpersonal communication: A review of eye contact, The University of Chicago press, Vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 222-225, Viewed 22 August 2013, http://www.jstor.org/stable/30147101. Devito, J A 2012, Human communication: The basic course, 9E, Pearson, New York. Ellgring, H 1989, Non-verbal communication in depression, Cambridge University press, New York. Eunson, B 2012, Communication in the 21st century, 3rd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Milton, Queensland. Galushkin, I 2003, Text Messages: A potentially rich medium in distributed organizations, prismjournal, Vol.1, no.1, pp. 1-13, viewed 30 August 2013,http://www.prismjournal.org/fileadmin/Praxis/Files/Journal_Files/issue1/refereed_articles_paper4.pdf. Gardner H, Kleiner F S 2009, Understanding interpersonal communication: A concise global history, Cengage learning, Boston, MA. Goldmann, R W, Mallory J R 1992, Overcoming communication barriers: communication with deaf people, Library trends, Vol. 41, no. 1, pp. 21-30, Viewed 2 September 2013,

Management Styles through Different Leaders

Management Styles through Different Leaders Essay – A growing body of evidence in the business environment supports that leaders are made and not born. However, a good leader must have patience, commitment, knowledge, and experience to manage the subordinates. In other words, a good leadership style is developed through training, education, self-commitment, and accumulation of experience. (Zaleznik, 2004). More importantly, leadership is one of the most researched concepts in business studies because of the contributions of a leader to the organizational achievement. This study also compares the management styles through different leaders by reviewing leadership styles of Carlo Slim and Bill Gates. A good leader transforms an organization and shapes the economy. Carlo Slim and Bill Gate are the examples of the leaders who use their different management styles to transform the economy and their respective organizations.The objective of this document is to provide an analysis of management styles through leaders. This study also compares the leadership styles of Carlo Slim and Bill Gates.Management Styles through Different LeadersK?yak, et al. (2011) define the conceptual leadership as a selective, role-taking, empathetic and selective process that assist in handling the strategic initiative of an organization. Clarks, (2009) points out that leadership is the major factor that determines the success or failure of an organization. However, leadership and management overlap because an individual must have both leadership and management skills to be effective in an organization. Management involves an ability to achieve a specific task. However, leadership is a broader concept that involves a process by which leaders nurture and communicate ideas to the subordinates.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayA strategic leadership plays an expanding role in enhancing competitive advantages. In a healthcare organization, leaders are called upon to use their problem-solving skills and knowledge to develop creative solutions to problems. Creative leadership involves the ability to invent or develop new solutions to challenging problems. One of the exemplified leaders in the healthcare organization was Robert, a nurse leader, who used democratic leadership style to assist her staff growing independently. (Clark,. 2009). Henry Fayol argues that both leaders and managers delegate powers to their subordinates to assist an organization to balance responsibility and authority to achieve a specific task. However, management process involves planning, staffing, organizing, controlling and directing. In this Essay we will compare the management styles through different leaders.Bill GatesBill Gates is one of the exemplified leaders who integrate management process into his leadership ability to achieve competitive advantages for the Microsoft Corporation. He is a business giant, and highly regarded in the IT and business world, often ranked in the Fortune 500 as one of the top 10 most admired business leaders. Bill used autocratic leadership styles to direct his subordinates before his retirement from Microsoft in 2008. Gates’ success was attributed to his controlling ability and quick decision-making process. (Demuth, & Hammond, 2013). Sometimes, Gates exhibited more than one leadership styles depending on circumstances. While Gates used the autocratic style as the dominant leadership style in managing the business, however, Gates would not have been successful if adopted only an authoritarian style because the authoritarian style is not appropriate for innovation and can hinder the creative ability of followers. Zentner, (2016) believed that Bill was a servant leader who focused on helping others to achieve their goals. â€Å"Servant leadership focuses on the betterment and support of others by seeking to meet the interests, needs, and ambitions of others’ above one’s own.† (Zentner, 2016 p 1). When a servant leadership style is implemented appropriately, it can enhance employee behaviors and outlook, which drives motivation for higher performances and changes.To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayCarlos SlimCarlos Slim is another leader in Mexico who integrates the transformational leadership styles in his management style to transform himself into a business giant. Mr. Slim is a native originally from Mexico. At a tender age, he received a business lesson, which helped him to understand the method to increase his personal fund. At the age of 12, he started investing in shares and after completing an engineering course at the University of Mexico at the age of 25, Slim incorporated his first company named Inmobiliaria Carso in 1966. He inculcated the spirit of transformational leadership by diversifying his business ventures using the visionary skills to actively invest in various businesses when Mexico was facing the economic problems.Management Styles through Different Leaders – Carlo Slim and Bill GatesCarlo Slim leadership style is influenced by his personal beliefs and principles, which he has inculcated in transforming his business empire. Unlike founder of Microsoft who used the autocratic leadership style in managing the Microsoft Corporation, Slim incorporated the transformational leadership styles when making a business decision. Yavirach, (2015) argues transformational leaders use the intellectual capability to stimulate their subordinates to achieve better performances. Slim uses the transformational leaders to transform Telmex into the biggest telecommunication company in the Latin America. Although, both Slims and Gates are entrepreneurs, and multi-billionaires in the North America, however, their leadership principles are different. While Gates uses the combination of autocratic, and servant leadership styles in running his business empire, Slim focuses on the transformational leadership style using the intellectual capabilities and charismatic qualities to solve the business problems. While both leaders use different styles in managing their business, both have been successful in their line of businesses.Conclusion Many leaders in the North American have been able to combine both the management and leadership styles to transform their organizations into business empires. This study proves that management styles through different leaders do overlap, however, a combination of both leadership and management skills is critical to achieving compet itive market advantages. The study also compares Gates and Slim management styles through different leaders, and the results of the analysis reveal Gates uses the combination of servant and autocratic leadership styles to manage his businesses, however, Slim relies on transformational leadership style to solve business problems. To modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us TodayReferencesClark, C. C. (2009). Creative nursing leadership & management. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett. Demuth, P., & Hammond, T. (2013). Who is Bill GatesNew York: Grosset & Dunlap, An Imprint of Penguin Group (USA) Inc. K?yak, M., Bozaykut, T., Gungor, P., & Aktas, E. (2011). Strategic Leadership Styles and Organizational Financial Performance: A Qualitative Study on Private Hospitals. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 24, 1521-1529. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.09.090 Yavirach, N. (2015). The Impact of Transformational and Transactional Leadership to Subordinates Job Satisfaction, Organizational Commitment Affect to Team Effectiveness. SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2159035 Zaleznik, A. (2004). Managers and Leaders: Are They DifferentHarvard Business Review. Zentner, A. (2016). Bill Gates: A Servant Leader. Research Gate JournalTo modify or extend this essay or to get pricing on a custom essay Contact Us Today

Philippine Culture and Filipino Essay

Understanding the Filipino Values and Culture To a person who is not familiar or aware ot the Philippine culture, understanding Filipinos is like playing a game one has never played before and of which the rules have not been explained very well. understanding the values of Filipinos pose a challenge, to enjoy the game without missing the Joys and fun of like living in the Philippines. A stranger or foreigner who has a knowledge of or exposure to the Filipino societys customs, etiquette, and manners, is less likely to experience intense culture shock. The Philippine Islands and Filipino Profile: The Phlllpplnes Is composed of 7,107 Islands with a total land area of 296,912 square kilometers (1. 6 kilometers equal 1 mile). This makes it a little larger than the British Isles and a little smaller than Japan. Its land area Is eight times larger than Taiwan, 213 the size ot either Thailand or spaln, but less than 1/30 ot the size ot the united States or Mainland China. The country is bounded on the west by the China Sea, on the east by the Pacific Ocean, and on the south by the Celebes Sea. It lies a little above the equator and is 965 kilometers (600 miles) off the southeast coast of the Asian mainland. It Is about 160 kilometers (100 miles) below Taiwan, and 24 kilometers above Borneo. Just being above the equator. puts the Philippines in the typhoon belt. The two pronounced seasons in the Philippines are the rainy months from June to October and the dry months from November to May. In between these seasons come a number of typhoons that hit the country yearly. The Philippines has a population of more than 50 million. The population of the country is rather unevenly distributed on the larger islands due to livelihood opportunities, social and economic organizations and historical factors. Its biggest islands In addition to the three (3) main islands (Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao) are Mindoro, Samar, Panay, Cebu, Palawan, Leyte, Bohol and Masbate. Its largest cities are Manila, Quezon, Davao and Cebu. The Philippine population Is characterized by an almost equal number of males and females. ot Flllplnos are below 15 years of age. Literacy stands at 82. 9 percent. The Philippines has for its languages Pilipino, English and Spanish; it has 87 different major dialects. English is widely spoken; In fact, this country is the third largest English-speaking nation In the world. Philippines is the first democratic country in Asia. Welcome to the Philippines! Welcome to this country of warm smiles and vivacious people. Getting to know the Filipinos is easy enough. If you speak English, you will find that most of the Filipinos speak the language; and what’s more, they are only too happy to make your acquaintance in English. Even if you don’t, the Filipino is so outgoing by nature that making friends out of total strangers or chance acquaintances is simply being in character. The Filipinos are a happy blend of several races, basically Malay with Chinese, Spanish, Indian and American admixtures. Their values and ways of life were shaped by several, sometimes conflicting cultures and the resulting blend is what makes their own uniquely Filipino. In their veins run the rich Christian values of Europe, the pragmatic and democratic values of America, and the spiritual values of Asia. The seven distinct elements in Filipino culture are: values, basic personality, basic social unit, politics, economics, technology and ecology. Each of these aspects of the Filipino culture has a body of ideas called â€Å"content† which gives form and meaning to each aspect. This form and meaning are expressed through â€Å"structures† or institutions which the Philippine society creates for the orderly regulation of behavior in established ways. Filipino cultural values are widely held beliefs which make some activities, relationships, goals and feelings important to the Filipino people’s identity. When these Filipino values coalesce and mesh in a mutually supportive system, it is called â€Å"Filipino value system. † The content of the Filipino values are the Filipino myths and religion while the structures are the Filipino oral and written traditions, churches, acred places, temples and mosques. The Filipinos internalize these values of their culture and thus create for themselves a â€Å"world of meanings. † The Filipino basic personality is determined by the Filipino culture because of the selection of those congruent types that are congruent with the culture. The content of the Filipino basic personality is made up of Filipino beliefs and knowledge while the structure is formed by the Filipino initiation and various rituals and formal and informal education. The Filipino basic social unit is the family which contributes to and maintains the Filipino values. The content of the Filipino social unit is the family, groups and community life while the structure is the lineage, marriage descent, neighborhood, peer group and villages. The Filipino politics are the Filipino ideas and structures related to the distribution and channeling of power within the Philippine society for its well-being, order and regulation. The content of politics is the Filipino traditional power units and democracy while the structures are the law, parliament, councils, elders and chiefs. structures which it creates for provision of food, clothing and shelter for its members. The content of Philippine economics is the production by private enterprises while its structure is capitalism and socialism. Filipino technology includes all that the Filipinos have invented to make their life easier, less arduous, and shifted from the brink of mere survival thus changing their way of life and giving them more control of their physical environment. Its contents are communication and health while its structure is composed of the various media, professional organizations, medicine, hospitals and laboratories. Filipino ecology is the relation of the Filipino to the ecosystem such as temperature, ype of soil, amount of moisture, types of crops that can be grown or types of animals present in the Philippines and other environmental features. The content of Filipino ecology is the identification of the Filipino with nature and its structure including hunting, fishing, nature worship and irrigation. Cultural Contrast: The Filipino, compared with Westerners, prefers a â€Å"structured† way of life rather than one in which he can be assertive of his own individuality. Thus, a Westerner will find the Filipino less autonomous and more dependent. This is because of the social oncept of the Filipino self-esteem. His concept of self is identified with his family. Right from childhood he is made to believe that he belongs to the family. Since childhood a Filipino is encouraged to tell all of his thoughts to his parents and submit to his parents’ direction, counsel and advice. He is admonished to be good because any disgrace that he commits is a disgrace to the family. In times of misfortune he is assured of his familys support, sympathy and love. By western standards, the Filipino parents can be considered overprotective and sometimes intrusive. However, if one understands this seemingly unreasonable control in the context of the Philippine culture wherein exists the belief in the primacy of the extended family over that of the individual and that the only source of emotional, economic, and moral support is the family, one will be more tolerant and respectful of such actuation. The Filipino Family and Kinship: The basic units of the Philippine social organization are the elementary family which includes the mother, father and children, and the bilateral extended family which embraces all relatives of the father and the mother. Of special importance is the sibling group, the unit formed by brothers and sisters. There are no clans or similar unilateral kinship groups in the Philippines. The elementary family and the sibling group form the primary bases of corporate action. influence of kinship, which centers on the family, is far-reaching. The persuasive influence of the family upon all segments of Philippine social organization can be illustrated in many ways. Religious responsibility, for example, is familial rather than church-centered. Each home has a family shrine. The influence of the family upon conomic and entrepreneurial business activities is also great. The so-called â€Å"corporations† found in urban areas are generally family holdings. The prevailing family structure emphasizes loyalty and support of the family, not of any higher level of social organization. The Filipino family is the nuclear unit around which social activities are organized – it is the basic unit of corporate action. The interests of the individual in Philippine society are secondary to those of the family. Ethical and Normative Behavior of Filipinos: Ethics bases itself on what is human. Not everything is universal in human nature. As Clyde Kluckholm and Henry A, Murray say â€Å"Every man is in certain respects (a) like all other men; (b) like some other men; (c) like no other man. It is within the context of (b) that ethical and normative behavior of people in the Philippines has its distinctive characteristics. The Filipino cultural orientation is supported by shared values which function as the basis of shared behavior common to most Filipinos. Values have reference to standards people use for evaluating what is right or wrong, good or evil. Values are elated to norms which are rules of conduct specific to given social situations. The Filipinos have two set s of paradoxical traits and patterns of relationship that are imbued by his culture. The first set is the highly structured and authoritarian familial set-up where roles are prescribed especially for younger members of the family. This is characterized by autocratic leadership of the elder-members, submitting one’s self to the decision of the family elders, and almost one-way communication in the pecking order. The second set of social relationship that the Filipino has, which ronically exists side by side with the highly structured set-up, is the strong communitarian practice called â€Å"Bayanihan† which literally means â€Å"being a hero. This practice ignores social ranking, structures, leadership roles and authority relationships. The roles in the structured set-up mentioned earlier cease to exist. Surprisingly, the Filipino is at home with both cultural practices in his social life. He shifts from one setting to another with unbelievable ease and grace. In the first set up, there is no way that a child can lead the elders in any form of decision- making. In the Bayanihan set-up, however, if a child proves that he has the right qualification needed for the task, he may lead the elders, not excluding his father and elder brother. There are three main imperatives that underlie Filipino value orientation: relational imperatives (actual person to person encounters), emotional imperatives (emotionally perceived and that the most powerful moral imperative in Filipino culture is â€Å"utang na 100b† or debt of gratitude/loyalty or commitment). Unlike in other Asian countries, women in the Philippines occupy a high status. Equality with men is a birthright of the Filipino women. Unlike her Western sisters, they didn’t have to march the streets to be heard. Women are highly respected in the Philippines. They may walk alone on the streets. They can also drive alone. Filipinos are fond of giving and attending parties. Any event can be an excuse for having a small or big party – the baptism of an infant, a birthday, a daughter’s debut, a wedding, or an engagement. Even a promotion in a Job, passing a government exam, getting one’s first paycheck or recovery from illness is enough reason to give a party.

Strategic Management in Amazon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Strategic Management in Amazon - Essay Example In 1995 a company was born called Amazon.com which started out as online bookstore. Amazon.com became very popular in its niche of online books sales due to its large inventory book selection and prices that were below market value. Towards the end of the decade the .com bubble occurred and many e-stores when out of business, only the strongest players survived. Amazon was one of the e-retailers that survived the bubble due to its customer centric approach, great levels of service, low prices and good variety of items. As the 21st came upon us Amazon.com changed its strategic focus and decided to diversify to expand its product selection to other areas outside the typical products at a book store. This report provides an internal and external analysis of Amazon.com during the middle par of the 21st century. It then provides a strategic outlook based on the reality of Amazon in 2008. A SWOT analysis is marketing strategic tools that analysis internal and external factors affecting the operation of a corporation. The strength and weakness variables are used to perform an internal analysis of the company, while the opportunities and threats variables involved and external analysis of the environment (Kotler). One of the biggest strengths Amazon.com has developed over the years is a strong brand identity among consumers worldwide. In its core business division its online bookstore Amazon has a strong reputation for providing value and excellent customer service. The company has able to develop its human capital and organizational knowledge of ecommerce since it entered the market 13 years ago. The company experience has been achieved through a learning curve in which they learned from their mistakes. The firm’s diversification strategy allowed Amazon.com to have the distinction of having the world largest collection of goods and services. Establishing such a wide range of product and service offering increases a company’s changes of

U08d1 Patient Consent and Health Care Ethics Essay

U08d1 Patient Consent and Health Care Ethics - Essay Example h care industry it is necessary for the patients to provide consent for the medication unless the patient is in a life threatening emergency (Pozgar, 2007). In such cases the doctors are allowed to take the decision and to conduct the best possible treatment for the patient to help remove the patient from any situation threatening the life. There are also other situations where the patients cannot provide the doctors with consent and these include situations like being a minor and or being incapable of making appropriate decisions for self. There are several laws that allow the health care providers to rightfully and legally refuse to provide treatment to an individual. One of the most common refusals that doctors tend to make is that of abortion services. By law the doctors have a right to refuse an abortion procedure and even in some cases the use of contraceptives. There has also been a clause that has been passed by the government to the Federal Refusal Clause where the state, local as well as federal government may or may not provide for abortion services (Pozgar, 2007). The creation of such a law allows the doctors to take ethical decisions and does not lead to the doctors or medical care providers to be faced with a confusion of ethics versus responsibilities. There are a number of cases where the option of abortion or use of contraceptives can lead to disastrous results where it could also lead to the loss of life of the women or permanent infertility. These might be an issue of ethics for the doctors. The rights of the individuals do not get affected here as the decision of not providing treatment is based on the law (Pozgar, 2007). If a doctor does not provide a certain treatment, it is simply because it could have severe repercussions and could also lead to the loss of life of the patient. By law an individual is not allowed to take any steps that can cause harm or be a treat for their life and any such attempt can prove to be faced with a sentence.

The Greatest Supply Chain Disasters of All Time Case Study

The Greatest Supply Chain Disasters of All Time - Case Study Example This is a major risk to company operations. Foxmeyer made an assumption that its new system would be highly effective, hence estimated benefits from such efficiency. It started bidding future contracts based on a system that was notyet operational. This can only be considered poor management, which entails poor planning, poor project management, and poor change management. Poor planning is because the company managers did not include certain risks that may have affected the project. This then means there was poor project management. The company’s project manager, in his or her plan, should include risk assessment, which should have the risk of the project not going according to plan. Execution risk should also include the risk of the current company system not integrating smoothly with the new system, and the risk that some required activities may not be recognized in time. This mistake is seen in other companies such as; Boeing, GM, WebVan, Adidas, Denver Airport, Toys RUs.co m, Mattel, Hershey Foods, Cisco, Nike, Apple, Loblaws, Ford, GM, Aris Isotoner, and Chrysler. In Boeing, there is also poor change and stakeholder management. A new system is implemented in the company which requires the cooperation of suppliers. These suppliers are not informed in time, are not informed of the company’s expectations, and the challenges that may come with such speedy and change in the production system. In the end, the suppliers cannot supply the products in time. They may have even produced poor quality products which may have caused the company more loses. An assessment was not done to find out the capability of the company, and the suppliers, to steer the project to completion in time. No consideration was given to the supplier, an important stakeholder in the success of the project. Lack of thorough assessment of a project’s feasibility is also a common problem in almost all the companies in the case study. Most of the companies go ahead with the p rojects, without a thorough assessment of the project’s feasibility and compatibility with the current systems. Almost all the companies ignore the risks that are ahead of them. They only assume that such big projects have to bring profit. There are risks associated with new systems, and these are all ignored. The companies work on expected benefits. In all the companies, big projects failed to meet the expectations. Most of the new projects were IT and system overhaul projects. It only means that any new projects that have no verified results of implementation should not be implemented and managed under traditional methods of steering a project to its completion. Traditional methods of management do not focus on the outcome. They focus on assigning duties to specific skills and departments, and expecting outcomes as described in project expectations. After implementation, that is when a manager realizes that the system was not compatible with the company’s operations, the system needed other sub projects, the system needed more time, and so on. New information Technology systems mean; new operational systems, and new roles and so new skills. All these should be accompanied by effective change management, since they will be accompanied by challenges in change management. The Case of â€Å"Denver Airport Cannot Manage the Luggage† This international airport implemented â€Å"a hugely automated baggage handling system†. This did not work as planned. This was an Underground Railroad network, driven by computers. The system was expected to speed up the delivery of bags to customers, and make the process of baggage handling efficient. It came with problems such as derailed cars, mis-delivered luggage, and jammed tracks.

How retailers can achieve good PR coverage Essay

How retailers can achieve good PR coverage - Essay Example To communicate and relay any important information about the company to the consumers, retailers rely on a host of techniques which are collectively referred to as public relations. Good public relations improve the retailer’s bottom line. On the other hand, poor public relations are known to retard the growth of the company or worse still, lead to heavy losses (Wood 2012). These techniques range from traditional ones such as discounts, to modern ones such as environmental sensibility. The perfect mix in this broad range is not well known, but some basic tenets underline these chaos. The United Kingdom is known as the principal retail location with such brands that are recognized world wide. For example, Tesco, Asda, Morrison’s, Marks and Spencer, Next, Dixons, just to mention but a few. These retailers alongside many others account for 8% of the islands G.D.P. To be specific, the city of London is a huge retail capital with a large spending ahead of other big cities li ke Tokyo, New York and Paris. These U.Ks largest retail brands have to apply the full range of tools and techniques, so as to secure good public standing. This range of public relations measures shall form the core of this paper. Finer analysis specific cases shall be conducted. The qualitative and quantitative benefits that derive from each shall also be evaluated. Finally, valuable lessons for new retailers shall be inferred. Most of the public news used as case studies for this paper shall be gleaned from The Guardian. This is because it is an authoritative and widely read broadsheet. Readers both within the U.K and without, rely on it for their news. Also important shall be The Telegraph. The mode of presenting the information shall be in a form akin to the case study. A retailer recently covered in the news shall be identified. The nature of coverage received shall be evaluated i.e negative or positive. The impact that the publicity had shall be discussed. At the end, a lesson for new retailers shall be contained. The first study is that of a retailer called Neal Yard. Neal Yard is a natural and organic beauty products retailer. On the 26th of May 2009 they agreed to take part in a segment in The Guardian, called â€Å"You Ask, They Answer†. The underlying objective was for the wider public and customers in particular to question the retailer and in turn get back answers to their question. As it happens with all companies, vociferous critics questioned the company’s ethical and green claims. The company was, however, unable to face up to the criticism. Instead, it pulled out of the debate without due notification to the public. No additional questions were taken. Despite constant prodding from The Guardian to respond to the questions or at least make a commitment to do so later, Neal Yard was non-committal. As a result, the questions surrounding their removal of a homeopathic malaria medication remain. This interest attracted much big newspa pers and even blogs. The reason simply is that the company employed poor P.R techniques (Adam 2009). This leads to one of the cardinal rules of publicity for businesses. That is, they should always respond to customers concerns. It matters less whether they make a lot of sense or not. It is easy for companies to bury their heads in the sand and

Housing Services Delivery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Housing Services Delivery - Essay Example The change of social housing organizations was hastened by a number of political, economical, and social factors. The first group of political accelerators comprises of governmental policies and regulations aimed at the increase of private housing in the UK. In the post-WWII period the housing policy of the UK government was focused on rebuilding, and providing new homes for the population. However, three reasons were hindering rebuilding processes: first, the government could only spend on housing what the country could afford; second, governmental investments in housing policy required better targeting on the neediest classes of population; and third, the efficient use of public spending were ought to be achieved through drawing in private funding (Collier and Luther, 2002). Thatcher's conservative policy on housing included two main phases: the extension of home ownership and the privatisation of rented housing. Through the increase of private housing among the population the gove rnment was able to focus on social groups, which could not afford to buy a house. Tax incentives, efficiency agenda, and right to buy policy was the next step to increase home ownership among the population: "The rights of council tenants and, later some housing association tenants, to buy their homes under the Right to Buy and Right to Acquire policies has enabled significant numbers of people (over 2 million) become owner occupiers" (Shelter, 2005). Nevertheless it had a negative impact on the supply of affordable housing for rent in many UK regions, "where the provision of new affordable homes has failed to keep pace with the numbers being lost through sales" (Shelter, 2005). The new problem has arisen: in 2002 Britain saw the lowest number of new houses built(measured in starts) since the end of World War II (Cameron, 2003). The housing supply was short, but moreover it mismatched the demand in the cities and regions. Thus, along with the stimulation of private housing governmental policies have created several obstacles on the development of UK housing marke t. Economic Factors Economical factors that lead to the shift from the welfare to contractual resource management in the housing industry identified in the literature are connected to further development of globalization. The success of Western economy, and the spread of the US way of life has entailed the rapid development of private sector in housing. It also has another effect. World Trade Organisation not only reduces barriers to international trade, but also increases the commercial exploitation of public services, including social housing. Pollock and Price (2000) indicate that market-orientated policies including privatisation of public service infrastructure through public-private partnerships is a part of a larger trend of privatization, and redefining of public goods as private responsibilities. The hopes of WTO are concerned with the commercial exploitation of public funding streams, and promoting the commercial interests of transnational corporations. Promotion of privatisation leads to the increase of competition among housing organisations as transatlantic players enter the housing market of the UK (Pollock and Price, 2000). On the one side it allows government to reduce funding to minimal, allowing private owners

Generate and evaluate options Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Generate and evaluate options - Research Paper Example The responsibility of deciding corporate level strategies rests on the top management. The divisional or middle level managers generally decide the business level strategies. The detailed tactics to achieve specific goals in the domain of marketing, finance, operations and HR are determined by the functional managers. Strategy A: This strategy should be pursued since the goal will be achieved with minimal capital investment. BCE’s existing 4G LTE penetration is 96 percent and a 2 percent increase is easily achievable. Furthermore, the 5 percent increase in ARPU will lead to long term profitability and growth of the company. The SMART (specific, measurable, achievable, related and time bound) KPIs enable the easy implementation and evaluation of strategies. These KPIs also provide direction and timeline to the managers to carry out the assigned tasks. The KPIs that have to be achieved by the end of 2014 will be broken down into monthly targets. Meanwhile, the KPIs that have to be achieved in the long run will be evaluated on a quarterly

Describe how a torque wrench relates to automotive physics Essay

Describe how a torque wrench relates to automotive physics - Essay Example This force is created the same way as the force is applied at a distance in a typical torque wrench. The horsepower of the vehicle can then be determined from the torque produced. The more torque produced by an engine, the more potential it has and an increase in torque results in an increase in acceleration. Torque is also very important in the braking system of the automobiles. When the brakes are applied, the road surface exerts a backward force on the wheels and this result in a clockwise torque that causes backward acceleration. In the design of the braking system, torque is a function of the wheel radius and for a full circle braking system, When a moving car is braked, the surface of the road exerts a backward force that acts on the wheels and this result in a clockwise torque that causes backward acceleration therefore stopping the vehicle. Manufacturers of in the tires industry must design tires that are capable of withstanding this friction without causing tear on the

Financial Analysis Wonderful Home Plc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Financial Analysis Wonderful Home Plc - Essay Example The organization headquartered in Wales operates with 30 branches in Scotland and Wales.  The organizations related to the home and office furniture retail industry deals with the number of factors. The management of the home and office furniture retail firms deal with two types of environments i.e. external environment and internal environment. The slight change of these two types of the environment may affect the company’s profitability and wealth creation. The project report mainly deals with the financial position as well as the performance of the home and office furniture retail industry. Financial performance analysis mostly interrelated with the ratio analysis. The key fundamental of the ratio analysis is the annual report of the concerned company. There are different ratios that indicate the financial performance of different sectors of the specific organization.  Here the research report is totally based on the financial performance of Wonderful Home Plc. (WH). Th erefore, the study will significantly analyze the different key ratios which indicate the financial position of the company. The ratio analysis is the mechanism that highlights the financial and operational performance of the chosen company. The primary objective of this report is to ensure the stability of the home and office furniture retail industry and developing new export markets in order to promote national economic development significantly.  It is feasible that Wonderful Home Plc. (WH) is approaching one of the leading European banks in order to take loans for business. Moreover, the reason for approaching the bank is to avail the market research data points. It will help the organization to invest in two different projects in order to attain high return. The first projects which the organization is aiming for is to establish a factory of home furniture.

Client’s Advocacy Essay Example for Free

Client’s Advocacy Essay Abstract Advocacy is an important aspect of every counselor’s role; therefore, counselors need to help remove environmental barriers that hamper client’s well-being by increasing the client’s sense of personal power and to foster environmental changes that reflect greater responsiveness to client’s sense of personal needs. Outreach, empowerment, social justice, and social action are all apart of advocacy. Counselors need to help the client prevent psychological distress by helping them develop resources and strengths while reducing negative influences. There are three models: the wheel of wellness model, the indivisible self- model, and advocacy. These models emphasize the importance of enhancing individual strengths and environmental resources and decreasing individual limitations and social stresses. Sally Jo Jacobs, 34, Female client whom is Caucasian and divorced with four children and two living at home, youngest is living in Arizona with his Father, her ex-husband She hasnt seen him since 03. She is divorced from him because he was abusive to her physically and mentally. Her oldest son is living In Seattle and working, going to college, and has his own radio show from the college at Green River Community College. Client has one older sister, who lives in Alabama, which is on her 5th marriage due to her inability to deal with the abuse sustained when they were growing up. The client has two younger brothers, who were abused, but not sexually by their father. Her and her children are now living in the area with no family support or even communication with her parents. Client states she has a violent relationship with her father. Client states her relationship with her mother is on and off. The client was referred by her regular Physician for depression and unable to come up with healthy coping skills. The client doesnt drink but twice a month, quit smoking in 03, doesnt gamble, doesnt do street drugs, but is on prescription drugs due to chronic pain from a previous work injury and her physical abusive ex-husband. She loved working on cars and trucks, roller skating, going 4x4ing, gardening and yard work. She states that she has a very limited ability to do these things she loved to do and is having a hard time dealing with the fact that she can no longer do the things she loved to do. Client states she is taking Percocet 7.5 325 mg, 6 pills in a 24 hour period of time, Cymbalta 60mg in the morning, Flexerall,10 mg and a sleep aid at night. It is important for the counselor to be aware of what medications the client is on in order to help in the relation to the client’s well-being. Client states that she has nothing to do and she thinks about what happened when she was growing up with the abuse and her accident on a constant basis, which leads her to depression. She says that when she was growing up there was sexual and mental abuse by her father, that her father abused her and her sister when their mom was working or out bowling. She has very specific memories, she remembers from when she was in a crib to her last day of high school, which was the last time her father touched her in an inappropriate manner. â€Å"Childhood abuse and neglect may be markers for other factors that have an impact on the developing child or may share with PTSD a common origin in a disrupted and disorganized childhood. Another concern is that previous research has suggested that abused and neglected children are at increased risk for early behavior problems and conduct disorder. Behavior problems in childhood or adolescence may be associated with increased risk for engaging in risk y behaviors. In turn, such behaviors may lead to increased risk of exposure to traumatic events and to subsequent PTSD. A third possibility is that childhood victimization may be associated with PTSD through its effect on a persons lifestyle, which places the person more or less at risk for exposure to traumatic events and, ultimately, PTSD. PTSD, such as low levels of education and extroversion, that serve to expose individuals to social roles and environments associated with high risk for victimization. (Cathy, 1999.). This learner believes that she stayed in abusive and unhealthy relationships because of what her father did to her as a child and now she is experiencing depression and PTSD. The goal of this client is to empower her to solve her problems independently by helping her understand herself and to help her have the ability to problem-solve. The counselor needs to spend time assessing the seriousness of the concern presented to her and provide structure to the counseling process (such as understanding the conditions, procedures, and nature of counseling), and helping the client take initiat ive in the change process. The goal for this client is to get her help for her depression with tools and education to help her work through what her father and ex-husband have put her through. My first priority is to build trust, rapport, and be able to set goals and design a treatment plan for change. The counselor will need to build up her psychological health by helping her build coping skills, self-esteem, social support, personal power, problem solving skills, self- care, sense of humor, sense of control, sense of worth, and stress management. Because of her abuse, she has developed depression and stress. The prevention programs the counselor needs to use for this client to help with stress is identifying the source of the stress, recognizing the physical and emotional consequences of stress, and learning and implementing adaptive coping responses. Strength-based Wellness counseling interventions may help abused survivors develop coping skills to enhance both overall quality of life and everyday functioning across multiple domains, while also providing a healthy foundation from which to explore and reframe their abuse experience. One of the most common interventions with adult women survivors is trauma-focused, or exposure-based, treatment, where the sexual abuse experience is reviewed in some way. Trauma focused interventions are based on the notion that the meaning attach[ed] to the abuse, as well as the personal impact, is imbedded in the details of the experience And therefore requires in-depth review of the abuse experience (Hodges Myers, 2010). Fostering positive growth is an appropriate therapeutic goal: posttraumatic growth increases positive feelings of self, self-efficacy, and resiliency, which lay the foundation for continued Improvement in other areas of life. Wellness-focused interventions offer clients a positive lens for viewing their strengths and strategies for using those strengths to cope with the issues created by their sexual abuse history. Wellness-focused interventions validate the individual and the fact that the important thing is not why the individual survived but how. Advocacy is an important factor in every counselor’s role and it serves two purposes: to increase client’s sense of personal power and to foster environmental changes that reflect greater responsiveness to client’s personal needs (Gladding Newsome, 2010). In order to help the client with advocacy, I would join the Montana Coalition against domestic and sexual violence and get my client guidance through them. The Montana Coalition Against Domestic Sexual Violence (MCADSV) is a statewide coalition of individuals and organizations working together to end domestic and sexual violence through advocacy, public education, public policy, and pro gram development. Our mission is to support and facilitate networking among our member organizations while advocating for social change in Montana. Currently, MCADSV represents over 50 programs across Montana that provides direct services to victims and survivors of domestic and sexual violence and their children. In addition, the membership includes other nonprofit and government organizations and individuals (professionals and members of the general public) who are interested in addressing domestic and sexual violence in a way that holds offenders accountable and provides support for the people they victimize. Our membership is open to anyone who is in accord with their philosophy. Their philosophy is â€Å"We base our actions and interactions on the following basic tenets; we advocate for policy that supports and/or forwards them; and we work to increase public awareness on issues related to them. We believe all women have the right to live a life free of violence or the threat of violence. Women have the right to freedom from violations of their personal autonomy and physical integrity on the street, in the home, at the workplace, and in the Coalition. Furthermore, women should not have to restrict their freedom of movement, their bodies, or their activities in order to be safe. We believe all women have the right to make their own decisions regarding sexual and reproductive matters, lifestyles, finances, education, and employment. We believe religious beliefs and practices are a matter of personal conscience and individual choice, and a Montana Coalition member shall neither promote nor discourage a particular religious belief in the course of his or her work. We believe classism, racism, ableism, ageism, homophobia (and all forms of elitism) are attitudes that serve to divide people who might otherwise join forces. As such, they interfere with women’s ability to pool their efforts and reach their full potential. Our membership is open to people of all backgrou nds. Furthermore, survivors of violence represent an essential constituency in our movement, and the Montana Coalition strongly encourages full participation by and equity for survivors† (MSADSV, 2010). MSADSV’s goals are to eliminate all forms of oppression, provide support and networking opportunities and training, and to encourage increased awareness and understanding of domestic and sexual violence and the concerns of survivors and to explore and support innovative policy approaches to issues related to domestic and sexual violence. This website has a lot of information for the client to get additional help and tools for her recovery. During the advocacy with the client, the counselor needs to be compassionate and show commitment in order to provide motivation to take action. The counselor needs to use verbal and non-verbal skills in order to be an effective counselor. Some skills the counselor needs to have is integrity, flexibility, empathy, patience, persistence, and resourcefulness. The client needs to have outreach, empowerment, social justice, and social action. Outreach involves reaching out to vulnerable populations in the community and helping clients find new ways to cope with the stressors. Empowerment is a process which the client gains resources and skills they will need to have more control over their environments and lives. Empowerment is important in this case because it helps the abused woman become aware of inappropriate use of power and privilege that her partner was claiming. Social justice is promoting access and equity to ensure full participation of all people in the life of a society as well as a belief system that values fair and equal treatment for all members of society. Social action derives from the belief system, resulting in the actions taken to promote equal rights. The counselor is involved in confronting barriers faced by clients. Abusive relationships has a significant and pervasive impact on individuals, producing a variety of mental, emotional, relational, physical, and trauma symptoms. Most therapeutic interventions focus primarily on reliving or retelling, in great detail, the sexual abuse experience. However, many clients lack a positive sense of self, an internal focus of control, and an ability to view the abuse as only part of which they are rather than the defining elements. Through a focus on Wellness factors, therapists can help adult women recognize their strengths and use them both in and outside of sessions to create and sustain positive lifestyle change. Helping clients experience positive outcomes of Wellness choices is empowering and facilitates their ability to invest in and cope with the healing process. Considering the multiple challenges many survivors bring to counseling, these outcomes are extremely important. A wellness-based intervention may increase self-efficacy, resiliency, and awareness of healthy coping skills, resulting in positive changes in everyday functioning. Such changes are inherently helpful to the survival process and can offer survivors valuable tools with which to approach future experiences. Therapists need to consider symptom presentation and prioritize the goals for therapy accordingly. Once safety is established, therapists and clients can incorporate a Wellness intervention into a range of treatment options, positive growth can occur simultaneously with distressing emotions. As with any therapeutic intervention, the therapist must continually assess the clients experience with the intervention and alter interventions when necessary. References Cathy, S. W. (1999). Posttraumatic stress disorder in abused and neglected children grown up. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 156(8), 1223-9. http://search.proquest.com/docview/220471620?accountid=27965 Gladding, S.T., Newsome, D.W. (2010). Clinical Mental Health Counseling in a Community and Agency Setting. (3rd Ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. Hodges, E. A., Myers, J. E. (2010). Counseling Adult Women Survivors of Childhood Sexual Abuse: Benefits of a Wellness Approach. Journal Of Mental Health Counseling, 32(2), 139-153. Montana Coalition Against Domestic Sexual Violence (2010). Retrieved from- http://mcadsv.com/

Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social Settings

Differences of Skills in Work and Skills in Social Settings WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SKILL IN THE PERSON, SKILL IN THE JOB AND SKILL IN THE SOCIAL SETTING AND WHY IS THIS IMPORTANT. A quarter century ago skill was generally referred to as manual dexterity (tool usage or control) and to some understanding of underpinning bodies of theory and knowledge associated with the exercise of particular trades or occupations. Hence, there has been growing priority of softer social skills and personal attributes such as manner, deportment, appearance, dress sense, accent, ability to get on with people and self confidence (Payne, 1999; Grugulis et al, 2004). As one employee reports one recruit attitude (Calligham and Thompson, 2002:240). These attributes and attitudes are being referred to as skills (Payne, 1999 cited in Stephen Bach, 2007). One of the most difficult to describe and hard to define concept is skill (Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep, 2004), in a survey carried out by (Francis and Penn, 1994), they concluded that different occupational groups will categorize skill in different ways, which suggests that a persons conception of skill is largely based on his or her own experiences of employment. Therefore, this essay aims at defining the approaches of skills and also what these approaches are and why it is fundamental in analyzing skill. WHAT IS SKILL? Skill is defined as the expertise, ability or competence to undertake specific activities often acquired through formal instruction or work experience (Brown et al, 2001). The dictionary definition of skill reveals the complexity of the concept. At the core of all definitions is the idea of competence or proficiency-the ability to do something well. The word encompasses both mental and physical proficiency meaning skill implies understanding or knowledge, it also implies physical dexterity. In distinguishing between skill as mundane accomplishment and skill as virtuosity will help give theoretical insights into the mechanisms that underlie skilled activities, failure to distinguish between the two senses of the word can lead to conceptual confusion (Attewell, 1990). Attewells research indicates four distinct sociological notions of skill which yields different images of skill. Positivist Ethno-methodological Weberian Marxist Positivism This refers to those who treat skill as an attribute amenable to qualitative measurement and believe that this attribute has an objective character independent of the observer. With this assumption, at the outset positivists are faced with two issues: First, should skill be treated as a measureable attribute of persons or jobs/tasks (Spenner, 1983)? Second, should apparently diverse or qualitatively different skills be rendered commensurate and hence measurable? Is there a yardstick that underlies varied skills? (Attewell, 1990). Ethno-methodological This is completely at odds with the positivists assumptions about complexity, routine, and conscious analysis, it offers a view of human activity and hence, skills.ÂÂ   The core of this perspective is the idea that all human activity, even the most mundane, is quite complex. Things such as walking, crossing the road and carrying on a conversation that everyone does, are amazing accomplishments requiring a complex coordination of perception, movement, and decision, a myriad of choices, and a multitude of skills (Garfinkel, 1969). The Weberian School This school tries to understand the conditions under which occupations are socially demarked as skilled and the processes by which some jobs come to command higher standing than others. This school points that tasks complexity becomes important as it creates uncertainty as to whether and how the task can be accomplished. This then becomes the core around which practitioners build claims to skill, even when their knowledge and techniques are modest (Attewell, 1990). The Marxist School This school enters skill from three areas which are: in the labor theory of value, in debates concerning the labor aristocracy, and in the theory of alienation and technological change. However it would be misleading to suggest that classical Marxist has a well articulated theory of skill as such. Marx and Engels writings provide theoretical hints and some neo-Marxists have built upon these. Hence, many contemporary Marxists treat skill as a common sense category which does not require explication, while other neo-Marxists treatments of skill frequently shade into either positivist or social constructionist thinking (Attewell, 1990). APRROACHES TO THE ANALYSIS OF SKILL There are three approaches to the analysis of skill as shown in (Table 1). Skill in the person Skill in the job Skill in the setting Focus Principal Area of Concern Typical Method of Analysis Typically Adopted by: Person Individual attributes acquired through: Education Qualification Training Experience Questionnaire surveys Aptitude test / Experiments Economists Psychologists Job Task requirements Complexity Discretion Job analysis Job evaluation Occupational Psychologists Management theorists Industrial / Employment Relations theorists Setting Social relations Case studies of industries and occupations Ethnographic studies of workplaces Social historians Sociologist Table 1: Skill approaches (Source: Noon M. Blyton P., 2002) Skill in the person In this aspect, the skill centers on the quality possessed by the individual through knowledge, dexterity, judgment, linguistic ability which is accumulated as a result of education, training and experience (Noon and Bylton, 2002). Skill that focuses on the person often attempts to identify individual attributes and qualities and seek to measure these by the use of aptitude test under experimental conditions. Psychologists agree with this approach and view it as an independent variable (Vallas, 1990). Hence, questionnaires might be distributed to assess the individuals education, training and experience which could serve as a proxy for skill- a method mostly used by economists (Cockburn, 1983). Some commentators have argued that there is a need to broaden the definition of skill in the person by labeling certain personal characteristics as skills. Warhurst, Grugulis and Keep (2004) points that attitudes, character traits and predispositions are being described by employers as skills required and they lacking in the labor market. Lafer (2004) argues that a skill is a quality learned or developed by individuals that will secure them a living, however, many of the new skills such as punctuality, appearance, manner e.t.c. are not skills because alone, they cannot secure an individual a living wage although they might be prerequisite for getting a job in the first place and are also required in order to remain in employment. Lafer points that the consequence of broadening the definition of skill means the concept of skill in the person becomes increasingly meaningless. Skill in the person is very essential in the labor market, as Becker (1964) argues that in a market economy, an individuals human capital will determine his or her value as an employee. An individual can choose to increase their human capital through taking advantage of educational opportunities and training or they can as well choose to ignore these opportunities and as such lower their relative value in the labor market. This approach is typified of human capital theorist, they point that the responsibility for success in work lies with the individual and they raise the notion of meritocratic society, where individual effort is rewarded (Noon and Blyton, 2002). Skill in the job In this case, the focus is on assessing the skill required by the job rather than the skill possessed by the individual doing the job. Sociologist agrees with this approach and view skill as a dependent variable (Vallas, 1990). Attention is placed on the complexity of the tasks required to perform a job and the extent of discretion in the job which is of keen interest to individual/employment relation theorist. According to Noon and Blyton, (2002), the more complex the task required by the job, the more skilled the job is. There is however, need to measure the extent of complexity so as to arrive at a skill level. Hence, different jobs could be reflected in systems of status and remuneration which takes the form of job evaluation schemes. Discretion is of great importance in a job. Discretion involves choosing between alternatives required by an activity. The greater the number of decisions required by an activity, the greater the skill level. The more the employee is able to exercise his/her judgment, then the more skilled a task may be said to be. Therefore, examining the amount of rules employees are obliged to follow will serve as an assessment of the skill level: the more rules, the less scope for discretion and the lower their skill will be judged to be. Discretion is the key element of job skill. It grants workers the space to develop their expertise and to exercise judgment and features heavily in academic attempts to theorize skill (Grugulis, 2007). Feature of Skilled Work Identified as Important Most Likely to be Identified as Important by: Apprenticeship Older, male, manual workers (particularly those processing apprenticeship qualifications) Training Younger, female, public-sector service employees (particularly those processing higher level qualifications) Qualifications Women (particularly in retail distribution). Younger respondents people with lower level qualification High Abilities Men People with higher level qualification Experience No specific group Table 2: Based on Francis and Pen (1994). The survey comprised of nine hundred and eighty seven adults aged between 20 and 60, and was undertaken in Rochdale, U.K. in 1986. (Source: Noon M. And Blyton P., 2002) Education, apprenticeship, training and qualification all focus on developing and maintaining individual skill. Cockburn (1983) and Littler (1982) have argued that skill is also an aspect of jobs and work can be designed to make use of demand, develop and deploy skills just as it can also minimize the need for skill (Grugulis, 2007). When individual possess skill in the job it may enhance organizational benefits. It ensures consistency of product; work is been completed quickly and satisfactory. Workers with appropriate skill will know about the product they are producing and make decisions on how they might best work or judge the quality of their labor. It is important to note that as individuals gain knowledge of the organization they work in their level of skill increases by seeing the way their system operates, experience problems been solved successfully and learn which of their colleagues to approach with certain requests. Felstead et als (2000) analysis of survey data reveals that even when respondents have held the same job for five years there is still an increasing demand for skills suggesting that workers gain in skills and experience over time. In addition, skill in the individual and skill in the job are closely linked. Hence, skill is important to an employer because an employer cannot employ an individual that does not have the skill required in the job. Skill in the setting The definition of skill in the social setting is Cockburns 1983 third element. Individual status or group may protect skill, in same way as skill itself confers status. This means to an extent, skill, status and control are necessarily linked; expertise may require control over work and this brings with it higher status. Those aspects of social life that do not relate with skill but confer to status, impacts on the way skill is been perceived (Grugulis, 2007). Skills are socially and politically negotiated and it reflects the power and influence of diverse interest groups. As Sadler (1970:23) has observed, skill is to a considerable extent determined by social factors present in the work situation and in the occupational culture at large [and therefore includes] the evaluations placed on particular kinds of activity and on particular classes of individual and the actions of organized pressure groups directed at safeguarding the earnings and job security of particular trades and professions (Noon and Blyton, 2002). This then means skill in the social setting is important as it create room for protectionism; certain groups want to protect their skills in order to form a particular status. Social setting can be viewed from the notion of social closure which is one fundamental concept of sociology as defined by Weber (1947) and elaborated by Parkin (1979) and Kreckel (1980). Social Closure or Skilled Status The total process of occupational social closure is composed of three interacting sub-processes (see Fig.1). An ideological process: in this case individuals recognise a shared set of values, beliefs and reinforce these symbolically. A political process, whereby group members act collectively, combines their resources in pursuit of common goals. A material process, whereby members of the group seek to appropriate the tools and technology to the work process and control or influence the work organisation. CONCLUSION As a result of the different theoretical perspective of skill, there has been little consensus about the way skill should be assessed and, indeed different perspective tend to base their argument upon different concepts of skill (Attwell, 1990; Spenner, 1990; Vallas, 1990; Gallie, 1991). This has made the issue very controversial. However, the different meaning of skill centers on the three approaches above- skill in the person, skill in the job and skill in social setting. Hence, there are still unanswered questions about skill. What is the generally acceptable definition of skill? as work is changing continually, hence, demanding different abilities. Are people becoming deskilled or up skilled? REFERENCES Attwell, P. (1990). What is Skill?ÂÂ   Work and Occupations. Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 422-443. Brown, P; Green, A.ÂÂ   and Lauder, H. (2001). High Skills. Oxford University Press. Keep, E. (2005). Skills, training and the quest for the Holy Grail of influence and status in Bach, S. (ed) Managing Human Resources: Personnel Management in Transition 4th edition Oxford: Blackwell. Grugulis, I. (2007). Skills, Training and Human Resource Development. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Noon, M. and Blyton, P. (2002). The Realities of Work. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Vallas, S.P. (1990). The concept of skill: a critical review Work and Occupations Vol 17, No. 4, pp 379-398. Warhurst, C., Grugulis, I. And Keep, E. (2004). The Skills that Matter. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending

Subcultural Theories of Youth Offending Introduction The essay will look at historical subcultural theories and explanations which play a role in explaining youth offending behaviour. It will in particular focus on deviant and radical subcultural theories including theories from Merton and Cohen and look at ways in which these theories are still prevalent amongst contemporary society and continue to be relevant. The essay will consist of an in dept critical analysis of the arguments put forward. Browne (2000) defines a subculture as a group of people who hold their own norms, culture, ethnicity, sexuality and values. Subcultures are smaller cultures held by a group of people within a larger culture in the society of which they belong to. Crime and deviance subcultural explanations of deviance advocate that those individuals who commit deviant behaviours share similar values which are to an extent differentiated from the main values of society The dissertation will critically review the literature. It is useful to do this as it helps to identify to the validity of the literature. In carrying out a critical literature review it aids in ensuring that new research into the topic avoids the errors found in some earlier research. Aims and objectives of the dissertation will be to critically analyse literature of historical theorists well known for their work associated with early deviant subcultural theories and to explore their relevance within contemporary society and demonstrate how historical ideas differ and/or are similar with ideas from society today. Other aims and objectives include carrying out a critical analysis on the work of these theorists and of sources which information has derived from. Literature Early Radical and Deviant subcultural theories Robert Merton put forward the theory of anomie/ strains which posed of great relevance to subcultural theories in the origins of deviant subcultural theorists. The theory suggest that deviance is a means used to achieve societys goals when they cannot be achieved through legitimate means due to factors such as socio economic factors, disadvantages in education and job prospects. This can then place strain upon these individuals as they want to achieve the goals but lack the opportunity for doing so by conventional means, (Cote, 2002). Great Britain Department for Work and Pensions (2004) in their sixth annual report state that many neighbourhoods have been subject to a spiral of decline. Areas with high unemployment and crime rates attain bad reputations resulting in businesses and employers to move out and which means there is high turnover and plenty of housing which is left empty posing opportunity for crime, vandalism and drug dealing. This supports Mertons view that deviance may in actual fact be a result of deprived areas posing disadvantages on individuals. This provides strong support for Mertons theory as it has been derived from a credible government organisations findings which have been providing data for the government for six years. Cohen (1955) criticised Mertons theory however and states that it does not account for crimes which are committed for no apparent reason. He fails to address why acts of deviance may take place where they fail to provide any monetary value. Cohen believes that acts of deviance take place out of fun not out of necessity. He also believes that crime does not take place on an individual level but as a collective problem for gang members who seek audiences in order to gain status and respect. In addition Cohen (1973) states that undesirable subcultures may be used as scapegoats for the government and law officials with the aim of creating moral panic so they can be viewed as fighting off these delinquents. There have been occasions when the governments claims have been questioned. BBC (2002) talk about the government placing blame for the growth of youth crime on incompetent and violent parents. Questions however have been raised as to whether the government is evading responsibility for the increase of crime levels to parents. This can however only be a matter of raising questions as to whether or not the government exercise the use of scapegoating. Baerveldt et al (2006) used criteria from work carried out by Goode and Yehuda to carry out an investigation to prove the hypothesis that a moral panic relating to youth crime has been prevalent since the 1990s in the Netherlands. They had found that most of the criteria identified by Good and Yehuda had been met however it was unclear that the underpinning of this moral panic was solely down to beurocratic processes. There were also flaws identified with the methodology or the research and Baerveld et al felt that future research should be more comparative looking at moral local panics or comparing panics with non-panics. This suggests that the finding from this study may not be as significant as the methodology may have been flawed. The work carried out by various sociologists in The Chicago School also contributed to the origins of deviant subcultural theories. Hopkins Burke (2008) speaks of the Sociologist Ernest Burges who put forward a theory of social disorganisation in 1928. The University of Chicago Centennial Catalogues (2010) state that Burgess played a central role in research which he contributed to the Chicago School of sociology. He observed that there was a high presence of criminal behaviour in the zones of transition. He put this down to the constant expansion of the business district into these areas resulting in the displacement of residents in this area. As this was one of the most desirable zones to live in, it was an area of attraction for immigrants who were too poor to live elsewhere. Burges claimed that this resulted in the weakening of family and communities due to social patterns. Shaw and McKay state that it is neighbourhood organisation which allowed or prevented offending behaviour. They noted that parents of youths from neighbourhoods which were wealthier fulfilled their childrens needs resulting in less crime in the areas. However they stated that in the zone of transition families were strained as a result of migration, poverty and rapid urban growth. Left with little support children and young people had no social constraints placed on them therefore were more likely to seek friends in the streets of the city in search for excitement. It can be argued however that poverty does not always lead to crime as there are people who want to break the cycle of poverty and change their lives around. BBC (2005) state that the cycle of poverty (As shown in Appendix 1) is where families or communities become trapped in poverty as a result of limited resources such as education, and finance. Breaking the cycle of poverty can be demonstrated by the self made millionaire Sir Alan Sugar; his early life began by being brought up in a council estate. It can be said that in some situations being bought up in poverty may have a positive effect on some people, Barke and OHare (1991). However sometimes it may be necessary to commit crimes in order to break thee cycle of poverty. Jenks (2005) stated that The Chicago School contributed to the discovery of new and different people. Subcultural studies by The Chicago School discovered new ways of life and different sides of cities. Albert Cohen is a well known theorist for contributing to early US deviant subculture theories throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Burke (2005) talks about Cohens deviant subculture theory, which suggests that it is the family position in the social structure which determines the childs actions in later life. Cohen states that juvenile delinquents were motivated to offend in order to achieve status, with their offending serving no real purpose. He questioned acts of deviance which were non finance motivated such as vandalism. He put this down to a term which he described as status frustration. He talks about mainly working class boys who are denied of any status achievement through education which ultimately leads to failings in education and future prospects. This according to Cohen caused frustration due to the lack of goal achievement and as a result they formed delinquent subcultures in order to create new achievable goals of their own. Moreover Cohen believes they take middle class values and rebel against them. This theory replaces the emphasis that Merton placed on financial incentive for delinquent behaviour with the focus being on the achievement of status. Cohen rightly shows how deviance is a rational response to life and indicates how it can be learnt through peer groups. Moreover Cohens theory offers a good explanation for non utilitarian crimes. Cloward and Ohlin in Downes and Rock (1988) disagree with Cohen and state that he overrated the role of school and education as the cause of delinquency. Short and Strodbeck (1974) however found little evidence to support Cohens claims of rejection towards middle class values of society within gangs Cohen has also been criticised for not accounting for female deviance and emphasising too much on males. Home Office (2003) looks at the summary of cautioning rates for non-monitoring offences by sex from 1992 to 2002 (see Appendix 2). This summary shows female cautioning to be relatively low, accounting for an average of 10% up until 1996. The rate then increases by a substantial amount between 1997 up until 1999 where at one point it is the same as males. From 2000 to 2002 there is a drop in the female figures. This shows that females do also account for offending behaviours and also shows how societys situation can change over the years and therefore one single theory which applies at one stage may not be sufficient enough to apply at later stages and therefore goes against the relevance of early deviant subcultural theories with regards to contemporary society. Albert Cohen is a well known for his work with relation to sociological explanations of theories of gangs; his theories have played an important role throughout the 1940s and 1950s. Cohens work has been of high relevance throughout the decades and continues to provide foundation for contemporary society, (Kinnear, 2009). The notion of the family position being a factor in causing deviant behaviour is also supported by Albert. K. Cohen who talks about breakdown of the family controls being a casualty of gang membership, (Cohen 1955). Albert Cohens work is supported by another well know researcher, Albert. K. Cohen and therefore provides more support for Albert Cohens claim that status achievement provides a source of encouragement for gang membership. ESRC Society Today (2009) state that members of organised gangs are generally males who are from broken families and lower class backgrounds. It is said that they may join gangs as they are more likely to gain moral support from them which encourages excuses of violence and criminal activities. They also spoke about the link between social class and crime in deprived neighbourhoods. This shows how the work of Cohen is still reflected in modern day society. Smith (2007) supports this by claiming that the majority of young offenders derive from broken homes and that gangs usually consist of boys who have never been a part of an intact family. This supports the view that broken homes contribute to delinquent behaviour. This provides support for the notion that it is males who are usually involved in gangs is still consistent with modern day ideologies. Macdonald (1995) also supports the view that it is generally males who join gangs and states that males gain identity from being in a gang whereas women tend to pursue independence. Muncie (2004) discusses Cohens work further and talks about the concept of status frustration which is similar to Mertons anomie/strain theory. It states that children who are lower class feel this notion of status frustration as they feel they can not meet the same criteria as the children from the middle class so they seek groups who share similar status frustration in which they fit in better. Muncies claim demonstrates that Cohens work is still relevant to modern day researchers. This view can be supported by the work of Gold and Mann (1972) who found that it was students who achieved lower grades with the most involvement in delinquent behaviour. They also reported that these students felt threatened by academic failure which lowered their self esteem and delinquency was a factor which was identified in order to raise esteem. This link can still be found in schools. Wales News (2009) states that only 28 percent of children who were entitled to receive free school meals received 5 GCSEs graded A* to C whilst 62% of other pupils received these grades. This shows the link between social deprivation and underachievement as children who receive free school meals are receiving school meals as a result of social deprivation. This is a neo-Marxist argument in the sense that it suggests that the most powerful culture in society (middle class children who do not get free school meals) will over rule the lower class in terms of education and future prospects (children who receive free school meals). According to the Marx class theory the bourgeoisie (the capital class) are economically the dominant class, as a result of their ownership and control of means of production. Neo Marxists also claimed the bourgeoisies were politically the ruling class. The proletariat (the working class) are property-less and must work for the bourgeoisies in order to sustain a living, (Messner and Krohn, 1990). Therefore it can be said that neo-Marxist views are consistent ideologies which are evident within everyday contemporary society. Social Justice Challenge (2007) state that more than 3 in 4 of young offenders have no educational qualifications. This supports the view that the majority of delinquents lack in education and this may be the underlying factor which influences delinquency. This shows that in actual fact modern day society does project similar notions as ones identified in the 90s and therefore the changing nature of contemporary society does not invalidate theories which were established in the past completely. Cloward and Ohlin like Cohen and Matza and Skye, were known for contributing towards early deviant subcultural theories. They build on the work of the strain disorganised perspectives in their theory of differential association theory and state that delinquency was most prevalent within lower class subcultures however they take different forms. They propose three different types of deviant subcultures and state that the ability for them to develop depends on the opportunities available to them to commit deviant crimes and also the area in which they derive from (Burke, 2008). This is however based on a subjective nature and therefore may not be sufficient enough to solely rely on this theory. It can be argued that the validity of this may be supported in the sense that a number of different theorists share similar notions which have derived from the work they have carried out. In addition their view is also supported by findings from a study conducted by Elliott and Ageton (1985) who studied National samples and found that lower class youths committed four times as many offences as middle class youths and one and a half times as many as working class youths. This supports the views that delinquency is more prevalent within the lower classes. The figures of these samples however may not show the true statistics as they may not account for the dark figures of crime, which Koffman (1996) defines as crimes which have not been reported such as white collar crimes. White collar crimes are crimes which are committed by people who are educated with a high social status. These crimes are hard to detect as they are often carried out by highly intelligent individuals and can therefore be less visible than blue collar crimes which are usually committed by the working class., (Sutherland, 1945). Examples of white collar crime can be demonstrated with the recent MPs expenses scandal in 2009 which went undetected for a long period of time. Tittle (1995) argues that the impact of social class on crime is a myth. Although there may be some truth on this claim, it is of a subjective nature which is presented without any supporting findings to back it up with. Thee first of the three deviant subcultures identified is by Cloward and Ohlin was criminal gangs which are believed to emerge in areas where there are conventional and non conventional codes of behaviour with the combination of lawful and unlawful businesses. BBC (2009) report that the criminal gangs in the UK are costing the country up to  £40bn a year and about 30,000 criminals in the UK are members of organised crime gangs. They have also been described as having derived from areas which hold similar traits to those described by early subcultural theories. The second of the identified deviant subcultures was the conflict or violent gang which develop from individuals from unstable backgrounds. It is defined as grouping which develops as a result of absence of stable criminal organisation and consists of members who seek status and reputation from committing violent crimes which are often carried out as random acts of crime. Guardian (2005) talks about criminal gangs from several neighbourhoods in London who call themselves Muslim Boys in order to pretend they have links with global terrorism and to gain status by causing fear within public domain. The third of these is the retreatist gang who are individuals who retreat to sex, drugs and crime as a result of failure in successfully perusing legitimate and illegitimate opportunities. National Youth Violence Prevention Resource Centre (2004), describes gangs which are involved in similar activities and hold traits similar to the retreatist gang which Cloward and Ohlin identified. This shows that all three gangs described by Cloward and Ohlin are still prevalent in modern day society and suggests that their research may not be in dated. However it is important to remember that although the types of gangs identified still exist there may be many more different types which have formed during the years. According to Sykes and Matza (1957) delinquents drift in and out of offending. They state that this delinquent behaviour fluctuates due to the neutralisation theory which attempts to explain how deviants try to justify their deviant behaviours by explaining to themselves and others their lack of guilt. They identified five different types of rationalisations, these are, denial of responsibility, denial of injury, the denial of the victim, the condemnation of condemners and the appeal to higher loyalties. This theory attempts to explain why delinquents drift in and out of delinquency as many delinquents feel or express remorse and guilt as a result of their criminal act. Another reason for this may be because delinquents frequently show respect for law abiding citizens. Sykes and Matzas (1957) techniques of neutralisation were introduced at a time in society where there were great concerns over juvenile delinquency, this meant they had a large sample of delinquents to study as there was a large outbreak of delinquency within society at this moment in time. Post modern deviant subcultural theories Post-modernism rejects the idea that theories or meta-narratives are sufficient enough to apply to modernity. Post modern theories state that it is aspects such as fashion, image and popular culture which are most relevant. It stressed that contemporary Britain consists of diverse and fragmented social groups from different backgrounds, (Hopkins-Burke and Sunly 1998). An example of post-modern youth culture is rap music. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (2008) state that in the 1990s gangsta rap which is a form of black music that derived from the USA became a popular phenomenon in Britain. This style of music promoted problems to stem from the white culture and carried out criminal activity as a solution to this problem. This style of music is also popular within other ethnic groups. Osgerby (2004) stated that there was a rise in gangsta rap around the 1980s and 90s which provides support for Hopkins- Burke and Sunlys theory as modernity may bring about new trends, fashion and culture which influence delinquent behaviour. The songs of gangsta rappers such as Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G were far from discreet in rapping about guns, violence and their hate for the police. Critics stated that their music could promote crime and violence within society as people looked up to them and may have seen it as a cool concept. This is also supported by the Guardian (2005) who talks about criminal gangs around London who communicate in slang, most of which had derived from black American rap music. Seifert (2009) also supports this by claiming that children absorb information like a sponge and that because of this they are likely to withdraw into a world of fantasy and misinterpretation of the violence and lifestyle portrayed in rap music. Sutherland (1937) warns of the dangers of preconditions for criminal behaviour such as motivation and attitudes which have to be learnt. This supports the views that the messages gangsta rap music promote may pose to be a detrimental threat according to Sutherlands views. Deviant subculture theories were revisited and revised by neo-Marxist sociologists and criminologists at the Birmingham Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (BCCCS). They observed that deviant subcultures were a result of structural economic problems created by social change. The work by BCCCs was in some way similar to Merton and The Chicago School theories as they all suggest similar factors and concepts play a role in influencing deviant subcultures. The BCCCS focused on mainstream youth and delinquency and spectacular youth subcultures (Hopkins-Burke 2008) Hopkins Burke and Sunley (1988) state that early British subcultural theories focused on levels of economic activity and the structural class analysis playing a key role in explaining delinquency. A good example of this can be demonstrated by the Global credit crunch which we are currently experiencing. Telegraph (2008) stated that a leaked home office letter revealed that the credit crunch could lead to a crime wave in the form of more crime and more illegal immigration. This shows that when people are suffering from lack of finance, crime is more likely to be carried out as a result in order to sustain a living. Hopkins-Burke and Sunely (1998) looked closer into such mainstream deviant subcultures. They talked about work carried out by Paul Corrigan whose work was highly influenced by American subcultural theories. He carried out a study on males aged between 14 to 15 years old within two working class schools in Sunderland. This study observed the distribution of power within the school environment. He argues that school is a concept which has been forced on to working class children in which the system attempts to force middle class values upon them. This in turn led to the working class children rebelling. In terms of spectacular youth subcultures, this was subcultures which consisted of generally the working class young people who possessed a distinctive style which included dress, lifestyles, behaviour patterns and musical styles. The types of people which have been identified as falling into this category are individuals who are: Teddy Boys. Mods, Skinheads and Punks. SDFS (1999) talk about how clothing and style can be a trademark which is adopted by juvenile gangs. They state that gang members wear certain types of clothing, colours or having certain hairstyles and tattoos. This is a common phenomenon within modern society and is important to keep up with as it helps identify members within gangs and trace them back to the criminal activities they may have committed. Hopkins-Burke and Sunley (1998) state that early subcultural studies put forward the notion of young delinquents as being social climbers climbing up the social ladder from lower class to middle class. Cohen (1973) states however that creation does not justify behaviour. Later studies support the notion that subcultural theories continue to provide relevance in contemporary society. This is demonstrated by the work of Wilson. Wilson puts forward the underclass theory in which he states groups which are from isolated neighbourhoods acquire fewer legitimate opportunities available to them in the form of employment, education and job information networks. All these deprivations of opportunities helps raise the likelihood of people turning to deviant activities, (Wilson, 1991). Hopkins-burke and Sunley (1998) talk about William (1989) and Moore (1991) who refer to poverty as central to the underclass thesis which results in individuals attempting to gain economic through other means such as crime. Rodger Hopkins Burk has done a vast amount of research on post-modern subcultural theories, Hopkins Burke (2008) states that Rodger Hopkins Burke is Principle Lecturer for Criminology at Nottingham Trent University and therefore his work is of a credible nature. The importance of early subcultural theories has also been stressed by Bailey (2004) who states that during the past decades many theorists have contributed towards what we now consider as being contemporary criminology. In addition, Blackman (2005) has accused postmodernism of being reluctant to focus on social structure. However he states that post-modern theories offer useful critical insights but their theories lack substance and critical application to young peoples social, economic and cultural lives. Conclusion From this critical literature analysis, the conclusion can be drawn that no single theory can sufficiently explain all delinquent behaviours as it has been shown that there can be many factors which play a role in contributing towards the causes and motives of delinquency. Also it can be said that early subcultural theories are still of relevance to contemporary society, however solely cannot be used in explanations of delinquent behaviour in modern day society as it has been demonstrated by post modern theorists that other factors may influence delinquency as trends and fashion change with society. The literature review has sufficiently met all its aims and objectives which were to answer the question as to whether early deviant subcultural theories still prove to be relevant within contemporary society. Recent sources have been used to demonstrate similarities and differences apparent with regard to early deviant subcultural theories and modern day society. The literature review has also met aims of critically analysing research and sources. The literature review has looked into the history of subcultural theories which consisted of deviant and radical explanations of delinquency. Taylor et al (1975) defines radical delinquency as being a conservative theory of delinquency, which looks at theories put forward by theorists such as Marx. Hopkins Burke (2005) states that deviant subcultures share common notions which are that certain social groups have values and attitudes which influence delinquency. Many early subcultural theories have been put forward in order to explain deviant behaviour. Merton states that deviance occurs as a result of financial incentives whereas Cohen put forward the view that it is status frustration which motivates delinquency, other theorists such as Miller believe delinquency is related to class cultures and post modern theories state that it has got to do with certain trends prevalent within society at any given time such as influences from the Rap music culture. The analysis consists of work from The Chicago School who according to Colosi (2010) were the first major body to emerge during the 1920s to study youth offending. Theorist such as Albert Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin who were described by Cressey (1999) as pioneering theorists and praised for addressing both origin and transmissions of deviant subcultures. These theorists work has undoubtedly contributed vastly towards deviant subcultural theories in the past but also provided foundation for modern day theorists to base their work upon. This supports the view that early subcultural theories do provide relevance to modern day society and even if they may not be directly relevant they may pose relevance in the sense that their work can be further studied and built upon with relation to future research. Post-modern theories however raise the important issues of early deviant subcultural theories not being able to account for newer influences which derive as a result of changes in society. This has been shown by theorists such as Burke and Sunley (1988) who propose that delinquent behaviour may be influenced by aspects such as rap music, drugs and alcohol. Substance Abuse and Mental health Service Administration (2003) discuss findings from The National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) (2000) which found a relationship between alcohol usage and emotional and behavioural problems in adolescents. These behavioural problems included delinquent and criminal behaviours. This supports the statement that other factors which have risen with societal changes play a role in influencing delinquent behaviour. Post modern studies help compare how society has changed throughout the years and are more up to date on modern day society and therefore has been able to provide newer insights into the causes and influences of deviant behaviours. According to Tanner (1996) early subcultural theories in the 1960s and 1970s were subjected to vast amount of criticisms. He claims that they exaggerated the cultural differences between delinquent and non delinquent individuals. These place focus upon delinquent individuals rejection towards middle class values. Siegel (2007) accuses early subcultural theories of being of a descriptive nature. He states that they sufficiently describe values and how they are transmitted in a normal process of socialisation but fail to address their origins. This is something Cohen has been accused of doing as he fails to address cultural differences. For instance his theory of delinquency identifies that it is the need for status which causes delinquent behaviour but he fails to address where this status frustration derives from, so his theory does not explain what has caused this need for status and what factors are involved in this process. He has also been criticised for placing too much emphasis on the male gender. As the analysis found female offending has increased over the years. This shows how he has ignored cultural differences as he fails to address the issues of women and crime. Another criticism Cohens has been criticised for is to having placed too much focus on working class crimes and middle class crimes have not said to been accounted for and neither have individual acts of crimes been considered. In addition it has also been argued by critics that there is too much emphasis and research focused upon delinquency within schools. They state that delinquency within schools is only short lived and episodic and therefore they cannot be generalised as being full time delinquents. As stated earlier Matza (1964) supports these criticisms by arguing that the majority of youths in schools who are less successful tend to only drift in and out of rebellious traits which have little influence upon later life, thus supporting the views that delinquency is episodic. Millers claims of deviance being an extension of working class culture in schools was also subject to criticisms. Subcultural theories were said to over ex